The following article is included in a larger index What can cause AIDS? where we present a short survey of some alternative hypotheses of what causes AIDS and how it might be treated or prevented.
by Christine Maggiore Contrary to popular belief, HIV is not necessary to explain acquired immune deficiency and the illnesses associated with AIDS. To understand why this is so, it is first necessary to understand what AIDS is. AIDS is not a new disease or illness; it is a new name or designation for 29 previously known diseases and conditions. As the NIH states in its comprehensive report on AIDS, "the designation 'AIDS' is a surveillance tool."191 Since 1981, the surveillance tool AIDS has been used to track and record familiar diseases when they appear in people who have tested positive for antibodies associated with HIV. The AIDS virus hypothesis supposes that the health problems renamed AIDS develop as a result of infection with HIV; that the virus somehow disables the body's defense system that protects against opportunistic illness, allowing the development of one or more of 29 diseases-such as yeast infection, certain cancers, pneumonia, salmonella, diarrhea, or tuberculosis-which are then diagnosed as AIDS. However, every AIDS indicator disease occurs among people who test HIV negative-none are exclusive to those who test positive- and all AIDS diseases existed before the adoption of the name "AIDS." Prior to the designation AIDS, these 29 diseases were not thought to have a single, common cause. In fact, all have recognized causes and treatments that are unrelated to HIV. For example, yeast infection is a widespread problem due to an imbalance of natural bacteria. The yeast infections that occur in people who test HIV positive and in people who test HIV negative are caused by the same imbalance of natural bacteria. All the opportunistic illnesses called AIDS have various, medically proven causes that do not involve HIV. Immune deficiency can be acquired by several risk factors that are not infectious or transmitted through blood or blood products. The following factors are widely recognized causes of immune suppression, compromised health, and opportunistic infections, as documented in the medical literature for more than 70 years. Chronic, habitual and multiple exposures to these risks can cause the group of symptoms called AIDS.192 In fact, there is no case of AIDS described in the medical literature without one or more of these health risk factors.193 Physical Risk Factors These risks include malnutrition and chronic lack of sleep. In 1985, orthodox AIDS researcher and director of NIAID, Dr. Anthony Fauci declared that malnutrition was the most prevalent cause of immune deficiency diseases throughout the world, particularly in developing regions such as Africa where common illnesses like measles run rampant and take millions of lives.194 The medical literature notes that malnutrition and infection are invariably linked, as one condition aggravates the other. Hunger and endemic disease are familiar problems in those countries around the globe thought to be under siege from AIDS. Intrauterine malnutrition occurs when expectant mothers are improperly nourished, and can result in prolonged, sometimes lifelong, immune suppression.195 Poverty, crowded living conditions and unclean water promote endemic disease and compromised health. The populations in many developing regions of the world are devastated by rampant infections with common microbes that pose little or no health threat to people in industrialized nations. Infections due to malnutrition immunodeficiency are the world's leading causes of infant and child death.195 Among citizens of industrialized nations, subclinical malnutrition, rather than starvation leads to compromised immune function, especially when combined with chronic lack of sleep.196 People who make habitual and prolonged use of certain drugs like methamphetamines, heroin and crack cocaine often suffer from malnutrition and chronic lack of sleep. Chemical Risk Factors Immune-compromising chemicals include pharmaceutical drugs such as AZT and other cancer chemotherapy compounds, protease inhibitors, antibiotics and steroids, and recreational drugs such as cocaine, crack, heroin, nitrites (poppers), and methamphetamines (crystal, speed). Chemotherapy targets and destroys the bone marrow cells from which all immune cells derive. They also kill fully formed immune cells in addition to killing B cells and red blood cells.196,197 Chemotherapy destroys the digestive system by killing the cells that compose the inner lining of the digestive tract which interferes with the body's ability to absorb and digest nutrients, causing malnutrition. Even when used very briefly, chemotherapy suppresses normal immune function, increases susceptibility to a variety of opportunistic infections, and can cause life-threatening anemia and diarrhea. AZT, ddI, ddC, D4T and 3TC are all chemotherapy compounds used as antiviral AIDS treatments. There are many pharmaceutical drugs known to suppress the immune system, particularly when used for prolonged periods of time. Protease inhibitors cause impaired liver function and liver failure (the liver removes disease-causing toxins from the body) in addition to kidney failure, dangerously high cholesterol levels, diarrhea and other health-compromising effects. Steroids are a known cause of immune deficiency often prescribed to AIDS patients to counteract the muscle wasting caused by AZT.198 Antibiotics, especially when used habitually, can cause yeast infection and diarrhea, two conditions that can lead to malnutrition.199 Septra and Bactrim are sulfonamide antibiotics commonly prescribed for continuous, prophylactic or preventative use by HIV positives. These drugs are leftover from the days before penicillin; they do not target invading microbes as narrowly as modern antibiotics and are notorious for their side effects.200 Both cause nausea, diarrhea, vomiting, anorexia, bone marrow destruction, rashes, fever, hepatitis, and anemia by interfering with the production of red blood cells.201 The immunosuppressive effects of recreational drug abuse are well-documented in medical literature dating back to the turn of the century. They include pneumonias, mouth sores, fevers, endocarditis, bacterial infections and night sweats-all conditions now associated with AIDS.202 Amphetamine drugs suppress the appetite, causing chronic users to suffer from malnutrition. Many habitual users of heroin and crack do not provide themselves with adequate food, sleep, shelter and healthcare. Prolonged exposure to common chemical toxins such as insecticides and herbicides can also impair immune function.203 Biological Risk Factors These risks include multiple exposures to and/or chronic infections with syphilis, gonorrhea, chlamydia and other venereal diseases, hepatitis, tuberculosis, malaria, fungal diseases, amoebas and parasites such as giardia, bacterial infections such as staph and E coli, chronic bowel infections, blood transfusions, and the use of blood products. In addition to the damaging effects of recurrent infections, many of the pharmaceuticals used as treatment have adverse effects on immune function. Factor VIII (the blood clotting agent used by hemophiliacs) and blood transfusions are immune suppressive and leave patients vulnerable to infection.204 Due to the serious conditions for which transfusions are necessary and the deleterious effects they have on the immune system, half of all HIV negative transfusion recipients die within a year of receiving a transfusion.204 Psychological Risk Factors Chronic anxiety, panic, stress and depression have been shown to compromise health, damage immune function, and result in symptoms identical to AIDS.205 Mental stress provokes production of the hormone cortisol; excessive cortisol causes rapid and dramatic reductions in T cells, a condition known as lymphocytopenia. Within minutes, stress induces cortisol levels to increase as much as 20-fold. High levels of cortisol can eventually cause what medical texts describe as "significant atrophy of all the lymphoid tissue throughout the body" which may lead to "fulminating infection and death from diseases that would otherwise not be lethal."206 A profound fear of AIDS is enough to cause even people who repeatedly test HIV negative to develop physical symptoms of AIDS.207 Termed "AIDS-phobia," this condition is characterized by weight loss, wasting, reduced T cell counts and other signs considered indicative of AIDS, and typically follows intimate contact with people who sufferers believe may be HIV positive. Beliefs and expectations are well-known to manifest in the physical body. The life-altering influence of beliefs was detailed dramatically in 1942 by Dr. Walter B. Cannon in his accounts of a phenomenon he called "voodoo death," a form of capital punishment practiced among certain Aboriginal tribes. Cannon reported that shaman, tribal medical authorities thought to possess special powers, were able to kill errant tribe members by simply pointing at them with a bone. Convinced of the shaman's ability to invoke a lethal curse, the people pointed at died within a matter of hours or days.208 In modern medicine, the power of expectation is a commonly accepted fact known as the "placebo effect." Placebos are inert chemical substances disguised as active preparations and given to patients in place of drugs. The health benefits gained from a placebo occur because the person taking it expects a positive effect. Since the benefits of any drug may be due in part to this placebo effect, most new drugs are tested against a placebo preparation.209 A recent study conducted at the University of Toronto demonstrated the profound physiological effects of expectation with regard to placebos. Researchers found that cardiac patients who strictly adhered to a placebo treatment regimen lived longer than patients who did not take their placebo regularly. In summarizing the study, lead researcher Dr. Paul Dorian noted, "What you believe has an important influence on your outcome."210 How These Risk Factors Apply to All AIDS Groups There is not one case of AIDS described in the medical literature that does not include one or more immune-destroying health risk factors. There is no case of AIDS documented in a person whose sole risk is exposure to HIV. Every case of AIDS involves factors known to damage the immune system and leave a person vulnerable to debilitating infection and deadly illness.211 Men Who Have Sex With Men Well-documented causes of immune dysfunction can explain AIDS illnesses among men who have sex with men although none of these causes are unique to this risk group or can be generalized to include all gay men. In fact, focusing attention on certain sexual practices rather than recognized health risks obscures our understanding of immune suppression and limits approaches to preventing and resolving AIDS. Nitrites, more commonly known as poppers, are immune-suppressive, carcinogenic drugs chronically used by some gay men. At one time, 95% of gay men in major urban areas like Los Angeles, New York and San Francisco reported using poppers.212 Nitrite use correlates with Kaposi's Sarcoma (KS) and non-Hodgkin's lymphoma, two AIDS-defining cancers found almost exclusively in this risk group.213 There are several studies that further strengthen the correlation between poppers and KS by documenting KS in HIV negative gay men who use poppers.213 KS is hardly ever found among members of any other CDC risk group or among women with AIDS, and is never diagnosed in children or infants with AIDS.213 In 1981 when AIDS was first identified, half of all AIDS diagnoses were for KS. As popper use has diminished, so has KS which since 1993 has accounted for less than 5% of all new AIDS cases.214 In the only studies that asked gay men with AIDS about recreational drugs, 93% to 100% of participants acknowledged using cocaine, crack cocaine, poppers, heroin, ecstasy, methamphetamines like speed and crystal, and/or Special K (an animal tranquilizer).215 Combinations of parasitic infections that include amebiasis and giardiasis along with rectal infections, syphilis, and gonorrhea can result in acute diarrhea which in turn causes malabsorption and malnutrition, or wasting.216 This collection of infections and resultant problems was commonly known as Gay Bowel Syndrome in the years before AIDS.216 The CDC reports that 20% to 50% of all gay men in major US cities have been treated, often repeatedly, for intestinal parasites using immune suppressive pharmaceutical drugs.217 Antibiotic treatments for recurrent venereal infections are immune suppressive, as is the practice of using these antibiotics on a regular basis as a prevention. Steroids are another immune damaging drug frequently prescribed to offset the wasting caused by diarrhea and malabsorption.217 Campaigns that encourage HIV testing, the consuming of toxic AIDS drugs, and living in fear of AIDS are primarily directed at the gay community. Many gay magazines may have up to half of their commercial advertising devoted to AIDS-related promotions.218 Such constant emphasis on AIDS gives rise to the notion of the inevitability of AIDS, a belief which can evoke chronic terror, despair and hopelessness-psychological risk factors known to impair immunity and compromise health. The chance of registering false positive on an HIV test is greater for people with high levels of non-HIV antibodies and microbes in their blood. Antibodies produced in response to the particular microbial and viral infections frequently found in some gay men are documented causes of false positive HIV test results.218 For people who test HIV positive, the drugs prescribed as preventative treatments for opportunistic AIDS-defining infections become harmful and even deadly when used on a daily, continuous basis. Bactrim and Septra, for example, are powerful sulfonamide antibiotics that kill digestive flora and cause anemia and bone marrow destruction. The anti-HIV drugs AZT, ddI, D4T, ddC and 3TC are all highly toxic chemotherapies that destroy the immune and digestive systems, in addition to causing five of the 29 official AIDS-defining illnesses.2199 Two 1993 studies conducted in the US and Canada found that every one of several hundred gay men with AIDS had a history of significant recreational drug and/or AIDS drug use.220 Identifying this risk group as people who engage in habitual, prolonged use of recreational and/or pharmaceutical drugs, have chronic exposure to a multitude of infectious microbes, who suffer from chronic malnourishment and/or chronic fear of HIV and AIDS provides a more appropriate and comprehensive explanation of immune suppression that invites many possibilities for prevention and resolution. Injection Drug Users Members of this risk group account for 35% of all diagnosed AIDS cases, while another 4% of people diagnosed with AIDS cite heterosexual contact with injection drug users as their sole risk. However, the majority of people who initially claim intimate contact with IV drug users as their only risk later acknowledge taking drugs themselves.221 Considering only injection drug use as a high risk activity for AIDS disregards the immune suppressive effects brought about by habitual use of non-injected street drugs as well as the many health-compromising factors that can accompany the regular, long-term use of illicit chemicals. The emphasis on sharing needles over the damaging effects of the narcotics injected with the needles distorts our view of immune dysfunction and prevents application of practical solutions to the health problems common to this risk group. Prolonged, habitual consumption of drugs such as heroin, crack, speed, and cocaine, whether taken by injection or other means, is well-known to disable immune function. Chronic use of these drugs is documented to bring about many conditions synonymous with AIDS including pneumonias, tuberculosis, mouth sores, fevers, night sweats, bacterial infections, and endocarditis. Malnutrition-the number one cause of immune deficiency diseases worldwide-and multiple infections are frequent side effects of habitual injection drug use, and are factors that suppress immunity. Antibodies generated in response to the multiple infections and chemical toxins typical of chronic drug use can cause false positive readings on HIV tests. Positive test results most frequently lead to ongoing treatment with various immune suppressive antibiotics and chemotherapy drugs, and to a sense of hopelessness and profound despair. A more compassionate and inclusive way to portray this diverse group is as people who engage in habitual, prolonged use of recreational drugs, have chronic exposure to a multitude of infectious microbes and toxins through septic syringes or septic living conditions; who suffer from chronic malnourishment, lack of adequate sleep, the immune suppressive effects of AIDS drugs, and/or the chronic despair that follows an HIV positive or AIDS diagnosis. The immune deficiency diseases caused by these multiple and variant factors can be resolved with treatments that do not involve toxic anti-HIV drugs and long-term use of powerful antibiotics. Transfusion Recipients and Hemophiliacs Hemophiliacs and blood transfusion recipients together make up 2% of adult AIDS cases in the US. As noted previously, Factor VIII, the blood clotting treatment used by hemophiliacs, is itself immune suppressive. Hemophilia is a life-threatening condition in people with or without an HIV positive diagnosis. Ryan White, the young HIV positive hemophiliac who became famous as an AIDS victim, actually died of common complications attributed to hemophilia (internal bleeding and liver failure), not of illnesses that define AIDS.223 Blood transfusions suppress the immune system. Medical experts note that higher amounts of blood transfusions among hospitalized patients correlate with higher death rates. The authors of one recent study on transfusions specifically mention that the immune suppressive effects of transfusions leave recipients vulnerable to deadly opportunistic infection.224 Factor VIII and blood transfusions can cause positive results on HIV antibody tests in persons never exposed to HIV by triggering the production of antibodies that react with the nonspecific proteins used in the HIV antibody test. Once a person has tested positive, they are subject to immune suppressive drug treatment regimens, and the terror of developing AIDS. Members of these risk groups can be more accurately described as people with serious preexisting health challenges, critical or chronic exposure to immune suppressive blood products and toxic AIDS drugs, and/or who are affected by the chronic despair of a fatal diagnosis. Based on this view, immune compromising anti-HIV chemotherapy and continuous antibiotic treatments would compound preexisting health problems, rather than resolve them. Heterosexual Contact Six percent of Americans diagnosed with AIDS cite heterosexual contact as their sole AIDS risk. However, upon further investigation, 60% to 99% of these people are reclassified as injection drug users and/or men who have sex with men, groups with identifiable health risks documented to cause immune dysfunction.225 As previously noted, people diagnosed with AIDS voluntarily select a risk group from among six categories determined by the CDC which limits health risks to possible exposure to HIV through sex or blood. The damage caused by AIDS chemotherapy and the acceptance of a fatal diagnosis are sufficient to bring about serious illness and even death in people with no other risk factors. Members of this group may be better described as people with no health risk factors acknowledged by the CDC who, because of their positive HIV status, regularly consume chemotherapy and/or engage in continuous treatment with antibiotics and other immune suppressive pharmaceutical drugs, and/or suffer from the chronic panic and hopelessness of a fatal diagnosis. Adolescents, Children and Infants Although teenagers and children are not a specific AIDS risk group, cases of AIDS among young people, however rare, are a matter of great concern. The fact that babies are diagnosed with AIDS has been used as an argument against non-HIV explanations for AIDS illnesses. Despite widely held beliefs, the majority of AIDS cases that occur among children and adolescents can be explained by the same causes of immune suppression prevalent in adults with AIDS. In 1998, new AIDS cases among this country's 26 million teens totaled 293; of these, 229 offered information which placed them in the two primary CDC defined AIDS risk groups for adults.226 Over 80% of the mothers of babies diagnosed with AIDS voluntarily acknowledge using injection drugs during pregnancy, a practice which almost universally results in intrauterine malnutrition. The remaining cases of AIDS in infants and children may be due to the immune suppressive medical treatments given in response to an HIV positive test result, or to the same factors that cause HIV negative babies to suffer from pneumonia, bacterial infections, and immune disorders. In 1998, new AIDS cases in children age 13 and under totaled 382.227 Residents of Developing Nations In stark contrast to the US and Europe, AIDS cases in developing areas of the world are found almost exclusively among non-drug using heterosexuals.228 Mainstream AIDS experts offer no plausible reason why AIDS would spread primarily through drug-free heterosexual contact only outside the US and Europe. A coherent explanation for AIDS cases in developing areas of the world is the well-known health risks shared by these countries-widespread poverty and malnutrition; lack of clean water, a regular food supply, and sanitary living conditions; limited access to medical care; endemic diseases such as tuberculosis, malaria, and parasitic infections that manifest in conditions identical to AIDS; and the practice of diagnosing AIDS based on a nonspecific set of clinical symptoms. Although HIV tests are not required for an AIDS diagnosis in many parts of the world, widespread exposure to hepatitis, tuberculosis, leprosy, malaria and other conditions are more than sufficient to account for positive results on the nonspecific HIV antibody tests.229 Resolving the immune suppressive conditions caused by poverty and malnutrition provides a means to alleviate the suffering of many people in developing nations who are currently counted and treated as victims of AIDS. When considering non-HIV explanations for AIDS, consider that:
___________ This is a chapter from the book DEFINITIONS Endemic: A medical term applied to a disease or disorder that is constantly present in a particular region or in a specific group of people. Cancer chemotherapy: Drugs used to treat cancer. Most anticancer drugs are cytotoxic (kill or damage cells). Others are synthetic forms of hormones. All anticancer drugs prevent cells from growing and dividing. Some work by damaging the cell's DNA; others block the chemical processes in the cell necessary for growth. Side effects of treatment include nausea, vomiting, and life-threatening diarrhea. By altering the rate at which cells grow and divide, anticancer drugs reduce the number of blood cells produced by the bone marrow, causing anemia and increased susceptibility to infection. Endocarditis: Inflammation of the internal lining of the heart. 191. NIAID and NIH Report 1996 The Relationship Between HIV and AIDS p3 192. Giraldo R 1997 AIDS and Stressors Fundacion Arte y Cincia, Medellin; Root-Bernstein R 1993 Rethinking AIDS The Free Press, New York; Al Bayati A 1999 Get All the Facts: HIV Does Not Cause AIDS Toxi-Health, Dixon, CA 193. Root-Bernstein R 1993 Rethinking AIDS The Free Press, New York p220-280; Brody S 1997 Sex at Risk Transaction Publishers, New Brunswick; Plumley P 1995 Condomania: Common Sense or Nonsense? HEAL Bulletin, HEAL New York 194. Willner R 1994 Deadly Deception p30 Peltec Publishing; The Merck Manual 1992 Immuno-deficiency Diseases p303 Table 19-1 Merck Research Laboratories, Rahway; Fauci A, et al 1998 Principles of Internal Medicine, Edition 14 McGraw Hill, New York 195. Chandra R 1983 Nutrition, Immunity and Infection Lancet i:688-69. Source: AIDS and Stressors; Merck Manual 1992 Immunodeficiency Diseases p317-318, Immunodeficiency and Malnutrition Merck Research Laboratories, Rahway; Chandra R 1975 Fetal Malnutrition and Postnatal Immunocompetence American Journal of Dis Chil 125:450-455. Source: AIDS and Stressors 196. Merck Manual 1992 Immunodeficiency Diseases, p304 Table 19-2 Immunosuppressive Agents Merck Research Laboratories, Rahway; Heyer A 1983 Introduction to Nutrition Keats Publishing, New Canaan p2-12; Owen B 1995 You Don't Have to Die Sick Adrenal Exhaustion p43-46 Health Hope Publishing House, Cannon Beach 197. The American Medical Association Encyclopedia of Medicine 1989 Random House, New York p258 198. Niwa Y, Yokoyama M 1981 Effect of Glucocorti-costeroid Therapy on the Immune System of Patients with Nonimmunologically Mediated Dermatose J Clin Lab Immunol 6(2):147-155; Parrillo J, Fauci A 1978 Mechanisms of Corticosteroid Action on Lymphocyte Subpopulations of Effector Cells Mediating Cellular Toxicity in Man Clin Exp Immunol 31:116-125; Fauci A. Dale D, Balow J 1976 Glucocorticosteroid Therapy: Mechanisms of Action and Clinical Considerations Annals of Internal Medicine 84:304-15; Leung F, Fam A, Osoba D 1981 Kaposi's Sarcoma Complicating Corticosteroid Therapy for Temporal Arteritis The American Journal of Medicine 71(2):320-322 199. Merck Manual 1992 Anti-Infective Drugs: Sulfonamides p46-48 Merck Research Laboratories, Rahway; Drugs Facts and Comparisons 1999 Facts and Comparisons Publishing, St. Louis (800) 223-0554 200. Duesberg P 1996 Inventing The AIDS Virus Regnery Publishing, Washington DC p300 201. Merck Manual 1992 Anti-Infective Drugs: Sulfonamides p46-48 Merck Research Laboratories, Rahway; Drugs Facts and Comparisons 1999 Facts and Comparisons Publishing, St. Louis (800) 223-0554 202. Bull Mem Soc Med Hopitaux de Paris, 3rd Ser 1909, 28:958-996; Pharmacology Ther 1992 55: 201-207 203. Immune System Toxins Rachel's Environment and Health Weekly #536 March 6 1997; Statement on Immune Toxins #544 May 1 1997 Environmental Research Foundation, Annapolis 204. Hebert C, Brecher M, et al Fewer Blood Transfusions Save Lives New England Journal of Medicine February 1999; United Press International, February 10 1999; Ward, et al 1989 The Natural History of Transfusion Associated Infection With HIV New England Journal of Medicine 321:947-952 205. Benson H 1997 The Nocebo Effect: History and Physiology Preventive Medicine 26:612-615; Binik Y 1985 Psychosocial Predictors of Sudden Death: A Review and Critique Social Science Medicine 20(7):667-80; Cecchi R 1984 Stress: Prodrome to Immune Deficiency Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 437:286-289; Cohen S 1988 Voodoo Death, the Stress Response, and AIDS Advanced Biochem Psychopharmacology 44:95-109; Golden K Voodoo in Africa and the United States December 1977 American Journal of Psychiatry 134 (12):1425-1427; Uno H, et al 1989 Hippocampal Damage Associated with Prolonged and Fatal Stress in Primates Journal of Neuroscience 9(5):1705-1711; Milton G Self-Willed Death or the Bone Pointing Syndrome June 23 1973 Lancet 1:1435-1436 206. Guyton A, Hall J 1996 Textbook of Medical Physiology Sanders, New York p964-965 207. Cohan J Legally Speaking, Mason v Jacobs 4Front Magazine April 30 1997 208. Cannon W 1957 Voodoo Death Psychosomatic Medicine 19:182-190 (reprinted from American Anthropologist 44:1942); Campinha-Bacote J 1992 Voodoo Illness Perspectives in Psychiatric Care 28(1):11-17 209. The American Medical Association Encyclopedia of Medicine 1989 Random House, New York p798 210. Reuters News Service report, May 14 1998 on Canadian Amiodarone Myocardial Infarction Arrhythmia Trial (CAMIAT), University of Toronto, Canada 211. Giraldo R 1997 AIDS and Stressors Fundacion Arte y Cincia, Medellin; Root-Bernstein R 1993 Rethinking AIDS The Free Press, New York; Al Bayati A 1999 Get All the Facts: HIV Does Not Cause AIDS Toxi-Health, Dixon, CA 212. Jagge, et al 1983 Annals of Internal Medicine 99:145-151 213. Osterloh J, et al 1984 Butyl Nitrite Transformation Invitro Anal Toxicology 8:164-169; Haverkos H, et al 1985 Disease Manifestation Among Homosexual Men with AIDS Sexually Transmitted Diseases 12:203-208; Root-Bernstein R 1990 Do We Know the Cause(s) of AIDS? Pesp Biol Med 33:480-500 214. Krieger L Kaposi's Sarcoma, AIDS Link Questioned, San Francisco Examiner June 5 1992 pA-1,A-17; US Centers for Disease Control HIV/AIDS Surveillance Report Year-end reports 1993-1998 215. Marmor, Lancet May 15 1982 (100%); Jaffe, Annals of Internal Medicine 1983 (96%); Harverkos, STD Oct/Nov 1985 (97%); Kaslow, Journal of the American Medical Association 261:23 1989 (96%) Archibald, Epidemiology 3:203 (100%); Duesberg, Genetica, February 1995 (93%) 216. Yardley J, et al 1980 Immunologic Status in Patients with Giardiasis, Gastroenterology 78: 421-422; Jaffe, et al 1983 Annals of Internal Medicine 99:145-151 217. Bozzette S, et al 1990 A Controlled Trial of Early Adjunctive Treatment with Corticosteroids for PCP Pneumonia in AIDS New England Journal of Medicine 323 (21):145-7; Traltner A, et al 1993 The Appearance of Kaposi's Sarcoma During Corticosteroid Therapy Cancer 72 (5):1779-1783 218. Average of two random issues of Edge magazine and Frontiers Gay Biweekly magazine less classified, phone sex, theater and cinema advertisements 219. Merck Manual 1992 16th edition p55, Merck Research Laboratories; Glaxo-Wellcome information sheet accompanying Zidovudine 220. Ascher M, et al 1993 Does Drug Use Cause AIDS? Nature 362:103-104; Schecter M, et al 1993 HIV-1 and the Aetiology of AIDS Lancet 341:658-659; Duesberg P 1993 Can Epidemiology Determine Whether Drugs or HIV Cause AIDS? AIDS Forshung 12:627-635 221. Brody, S 1997 Sex at Risk Transaction Publishers, New Brunswick; 80%: Potterat et al 1987 JAMA 256 p 12; 65%: Renzullo et al 1990 JAIDS 3, p266-271; 83%-90%: Committee on AIDS Research and the Behavioral, Social, and Statistical Sciences 1989; 69%: Chicago Dept of Public Health, Journal of AIDS 1997; 99.4%: NYC Dept of Health, American Journal of Epidemiology 137:2 222. Duesberg P, Rasnick D 1998 The AIDS Dilemma: Drug Diseases Blamed on a Passenger Virus, Genetica 104: p109 Table 7 [errata: In rendering Duesberg's chart easier to read a few minor errors was made. Thrombocytopenia (references 11cA) was left out following Fever. Thrombocytopenia is included in the "Aids defining" group as are Spontaneous abortion, premature birth, congenital abnormalities. Weight loss and Dementia, encephalopathy were also associated with amphetamines in the original chart.]
Chart References:
2c. Jaffe H, Choi K, et al 1983 National Case-Control Study of Kaposi's Sarcoma and Pneumocystis Carinii Pneumonia in Homosexual Men: Part 1, Epidemiological Results Ann Intern Med 99:145-151; Newell G, Adamas S, et al 1984 Toxicity, Immunosuppressive Effects and Carcinogenic Potential of Volatile Nitrites: Possible Relationship to Kaposi's Sarcoma Pharmacotherapy 4:284-291; Haverkos H, Pinsky P, et al 1985 Disease Manifestation Among Homosexual Men with Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome: A Possible Role of Nitrites in Kaposi's Sarcoma J Sex Trans Dis 12:203-208; Haverkos H, Kaposi's Sarcoma and Nitrite Inhalants In: Psychological, Neuropsychiatric and Substance Abuse Aspects of AIDS by Bridge T, Heather H, Johnson M (eds) Raven Press, New York p165-172; Haverkos H, Dougherty J 1988a Health Hazards of Nitrite Inhalants Am J Med 84:479-482; Archer C, Spittle M, et al 1989 Kaposi's Sarcoma in a Homosexual--10 Years On Clin Exper Dermatol 14:233-236; Friedman-Kien A, Saltzman B, et al 1990 Kaposi's Sarcoma in HIV-Negative Homosexual Men Lancet 335:168-169; Marquart K, Engst R, et al 1991 An 8-Year History of Kaposi's Sarcoma in an HIV-Negative Bisexual Man AIDS 5:346-348; Safai B, Peralta H, et al 1991 Kaposi's Sarcoma among HIV-Negative High Risk Populations VII International Conference on AIDS, Florence, Italy 3c. Pillari G, Narus J 1973 Physical Effects of Heroin Addiction Am J Nursing 73:2105-2109; Stoneburner R, Des Jarlais D, et al 1988 A Larger Spectrum of Severe HIV-1-Related Disease in Intravenous Drug Users in New York City Science 242:916-919; Rogers M, Ou C, et al 1989 Use of the Polymerase Chain Reaction for Early Detection of the Proviral Sequences of Human Immunodeficiency Virus in Infants Born to Seropositive Mothers N Engl J Med 320:1649-1654 4c. Gottlieb M, Schanker H, et al 1981 Pneumocystis Pneumonia--Los Angeles Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Reports 30:250-252; Jaffe H, Choi K, et al 1983 National Case-Control Study of Kaposi's Sarcoma and Pneumocystis Carinii Pneumonia in Homosexual Men: Part 1, Epidemiological Results Ann Intern Med 99:145-151; Mathur-Wagh U, Enlow R, et al 1984 Longitudinal Study of Persistent Generalized Lymphadenopathy in Homosexual Men: Relation to Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome Lancet i:1033-1038; Mathur-Wagh U, Mildvan D, et al 1985 Follow-Up of 41Ú2 Years on Homosexual Men with Generalized Lymphadenopathy N Engl J Med 313:1542-1543; Selwyn P, Feingold A, et al 1988 Increased Risk of Bacterial Pneumonia in HIV-Infected Intravenous Drug Users without AIDS AIDS 2:267-272; Stoneburner R, Des Jarlais D, et al 1988 A Larger Spectrum of Severe HIV-1-Related Disease in Intravenous Drug Users in New York City Science 242:916-919; Ettinger N, Albin R 1989 A Review of the Respiratory Effects of Smoking Cocaine Am J Med 87:664-668; Mientjes G, van Ameijden E, et al 1993 Clinical Symptoms Associated with Seroconversion for HIV-1 among Misusers of Intravenous Drugs: Comparison with Homosexual Seroconverters and Infected and Non-Infected Intravenous Drug Misusers Br. Med. J. 306:371-373; Hayes T, Altman R, et al 1994 HIV-Related Deaths from Selected Infectious Diseases among Persons without AIDS in New Jersey Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 7:1074-1078; Brettle R 1996 Clinical Features of Drug Use and Drug Use Related to HIV Int J STD & AIDS 7:151-165 5c. Geller S, Stimmel B 1973 Diagnostic Confusion from Lymphatic Lesions in Heroin Addicts Ann Intern Med 78:703-705; Pillari G, Narus J 1973 Physical Effects of Heroin Addiction Am J Nursing 73:2105-2109; Espinoza P, Bouchard I, et al 1987 High Prevalence of Infection by Hepatitis B Virus and HIV in Incarcerated French Drug Addicts Gastroenterologie Clinique et Biologique 11:288-292; Des Jarlais D, Friedman S, et al 1988 Risk Reduction of the Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome among Intravenous Drug Users In: AIDS and IV Drug Abusers: Current Perspectives by Galea R, Lewis B, Baker L (eds) National Health Publishing, Owings Mills, MD p97-109; Brettle R 1996 Clinical Features of Drug Use and Drug Use Related to HIV Int J STD & AIDS 7:151-165 6c. Firooznia H, Seliger G, et al 1973 Disseminated Extrapulmonary Tuberculosis in Association with Heroin Addiction Radiology 109:291-296; Courtwright D 1982 Dark Paradise: Opiate Addiction in America Before 1940 Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA; Layon J, Idris A, et al 1984 Altered T Lymphocyte Subsets in Hospitalized Intravenous Drug Abusers Arch Intern Med 144:1376-1380; Stoneburner R, Des Jarlais D, et al 1988 A Larger Spectrum of Severe HIV-1-Related Disease in Intravenous Drug Users in New York City Science 242:916-919; Braun M, Truman B, et al 1989 Increasing Incidence of Tuberculosis in a Prison Inmate Population, Associated with HIV Infection J Am Med Assoc 261:393-397; Brudney K, Dobkin J 1991 Resurgent Tuberculosis in New York City Am Rev Respir Dis 144:744-749; Hayes T, Altman R, et al 1994 HIV-Related Deaths from Selected Infectious Diseases among Persons without AIDS in New Jersey Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 7:1074-1078 7c. Pillari G, Narus J 1973 Physical Effects of Heroin Addiction Am J Nursing 73:2105-2109; Des Jarlais D, Friedman S, et al1988 Risk Reduction of the Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome among Intravenous Drug Users In: AIDS and IV Drug Abusers: Current Perspectives by Galea R, Lewis B, Baker L (eds) National Health Publishing, Owings Mills, MD p97-109; Brettle R 1996 Clinical Features of Drug Use and Drug Use Related to HIV Int J STD & AIDS 7:151-165; Bergling T 1997 All Methed Up: Doing Crystal Meth Will Lift You Up Until You Break Genre 53:October p45-47,88; McEvoy A, Kitchen N, et al 1998 Intracerebral Haemorrhage Caused by Drug Abuse Lancet 351:1029 8c. Stoneburner R, Des Jarlais D, et al 1988 A Larger Spectrum of Severe HIV-1-Related Disease in Intravenous Drug Users in New York City Science 242:916-919; Koch T July 30 1990 Uninfected Children of HIV-Infected Mothers May Still Suffer Nervous Problems CDC AIDS Weekly p9; Aylward E, Butz A, et al 1992 Cognitive and Motor Development in Infants at Risk for Human Immunodeficiency Virus Am J Dis Child 146:218-222; Larrat P, Zierler S 1993 Entangled Epidemics: Cocaine Use and HIV Disease J Psychoactive Drugs 25:207-221; Hayes T, Altman R, et al 1994 HIV-Related Deaths from Selected Infectious Diseases among Persons without AIDS in New Jersey Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 7:1074-1078; Brettle R 1996 Clinical Features of Drug Use and Drug Use Related to HIV Int J STD & AIDS 7:151-165; McEvoy A, Kitchen N, et al 1998 Intracerebral Haemorrhage Caused by Drug Abuse Lancet 351:1029 9c. Des Jarlais D, Friedman S, et al 1988 Risk Reduction of the Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome among Intravenous Drug Users In: AIDS and IV Drug Abusers: Current Perspectives by Galea R, Lewis B, Baker L (eds) National Health Publishing, Owings Mills, MD p97-109; Mu–oz A, Vlahov D, et al 1992 Prognostic Indicators for Development of AIDS among Intravenous Drug Users J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 5:694-700; Brettle R 1996 Clinical Features of Drug Use and Drug Use Related to HIV Int J STD & AIDS 7:151-165 10c. Des Jarlais D, Friedman S, et al 1988 Risk Reduction of the Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome among Intravenous Drug Users In: AIDS and IV Drug Abusers: Current Perspectives by Galea R, Lewis B, Baker L (eds) National Health Publishing, Owings Mills, MD p97-109; Ettinger N, Albin R 1989 A Review of the Respiratory Effects of Smoking Cocaine Am J Med 87:664-668; Brettle R 1996 Clinical Features of Drug Use and Drug Use Related to HIV Int J STD & AIDS 7:151-165 11cA. Savona S, Nardi M, et al 1985 Thrombocytopenic Purpura in Narcotics Addicts Ann Intern Med 102:737-741 11c. Fricker H, Segal S 1978 Narcotic Addiction, Pregnancy, and the Newborn Am J Dis Child 132:360-366; Lifschitz M, Wilson G, et al 1983 Fetal and Postnatal growth of Children Born to Narcotic-Dependent Women J Pediatr 102:686-691; Alroomi L, Davidson J, et al 1988 Maternal Narcotic Abuse and the Newborn Arch Dis Child 63:81-83; Rogers M, Ou C, et al 1989 Use of the Polymerase Chain Reaction for Early Detection of the Proviral Sequences of Human Immunodeficiency Virus in Infants Born to Seropositive Mothers N Engl J Med 320:1649-1654; Toufexis A May 13 1991 Innocent Victims Time p56-60; Finnegan L, Mellot J, et al 1992 Perinatal Exposure to Cocaine: Human Studies In: Cocaine: Pharmacology, Physiology and Clinical Strategies by Lakoski J, Galloway M, White F (eds) CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL p391-409; Larrat P, Zierler S 1993 Entangled Epidemics: Cocaine Use and HIV Disease J Psychoactive Drugs 25:207-221 12c. Des Jarlais D, Friedman S, et al 1988 Risk Reduction of the Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome among Intravenous Drug Users In: AIDS and IV Drug Abusers: Current Perspectives by Galea R, Lewis B, Baker L (eds) National Health Publishing, Owings Mills, MD p97-109; Brettle R 1996 Clinical Features of Drug Use and Drug Use Related to HIV Int J STD & AIDS 7:151-165 13c. Larrat P, Zierler S 1993 Entangled Epidemics: Cocaine Use and HIV Disease J Psychoactive Drugs 25:207-221; Brettle R 1996 Clinical Features of Drug Use and Drug Use Related to HIV Int J STD & AIDS 7:151-165 14c. Wilson J, Kalasinsky K, et al 1996 Striatal Dopamine Nerve Terminal Markers in Human, Chronic Methamphetamine Users Nature Medicine 2:699-703 15c. Pillari G, Narus J 1973 Physical Effects of Heroin Addiction Am J Nursing 73:2105-2109 16c. Pillari G, Narus J 1973 Physical Effects of Heroin Addiction Am J Nursing 73:2105-2109; Brettle R 1996 Clinical Features of Drug Use and Drug Use Related to HIV Int J STD & AIDS 7:151-165 17c. Dismukes W, Karchmer A, et al 1968 Viral Hepatitis Associated with Illicit Parenteral Use of Drugs J Am Med Assoc 206:1048-1052; Pillari G, Narus J 1973 Physical Effects of Heroin Addiction Am J Nursing 73:2105-2109; Layon J, Idris A, et al 1984 Altered T Lymphocyte Subsets in Hospitalized Intravenous Drug Abusers Arch Intern Med 144:1376-1380 18c. Brettle R 1996 Clinical Features of Drug Use and Drug Use Related to HIV Int J STD & AIDS 7:151-165 19c. Layon J, Idris A, et al 1984 Altered T Lymphocyte Subsets in Hospitalized Intravenous Drug Abusers Arch Intern Med 144:1376-1380; Stoneburner R, Des Jarlais D, et al 1988 A Larger Spectrum of Severe HIV-1-Related Disease in Intravenous Drug Users in New York City Science 242:916-919; Mientjes G, van Ameijden E, et al 1993 Clinical Symptoms Associated with Seroconversion for HIV-1 among Misusers of Intravenous Drugs: Comparison with Homosexual Seroconverters and Infected and Non-Infected Intravenous Drug Misusers Br. Med. J. 306:371-373; Brettle R 1996 Clinical Features of Drug Use and Drug Use Related to HIV Int J STD & AIDS 7:151-165 20c. Ettinger & Albin, 1989; Lerner, 1989; Brettle, 1996 223. Indiana Hemophilia Foundation. Source: Duesberg P 1996 Inventing the AIDS Virus Regnery Publishing, Washington DC p287-288 224. Blood Transfusions: Fewer Blood Transfusions Save Lives United Press International February 10 1999; Hebert P, et al New England Journal of Medicine February 11 1999 225. Brody, S 1997 Sex at Risk Transaction Publishers, New Brunswick; 80%: Potterat et al 1987 JAMA 256 p 12; 65%: Renzullo, et al 1990 JAIDS 3, p266-271; 83%-90%: Committee on AIDS Research and the Behavioral, Social, and Statistical Sciences 1989; 69%: Chicago Dept of Public Health, Journal of AIDS 1997; 99.4%: NYC Dept of Health, American Journal of Epidemiology 137:2 226. Fumento M Washington Times June 8 1999 227. US Centers for Disease Control 1999 HIV/AIDS Surveillance Report Year-end 1998 p14 Table 5 228. Altman L Outside of US and Europe HIV Transmission is Through Heterosexual Contact New York Times November 2 1993 229. Biggar R, et al 1985 ELISA HTLV Retrovirus Antibody Reactivity Associated With Malaria Lancet ii 520-543; Charmot G, Simon F 1990 HIV Infection and Malaria Revue Du Practien 40:2124; Bush, et al Journal of AIDS 5:872 1992; Kashala O, et al 1994 Infection with HIV-1 and Human T Cell Lymhotropic Viruses Among Leprosy Patients and Contacts Journal of Infectious Diseases 169:292-304
 TORONTO |
